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Visible materials, invisible meanings: colour-based hierarchies in the Middle Ages

2024-07-22T13:14:31+01:00

The decision that oversaw the choices of pigments used in medieval artworks was based on multiple criteria. Among these was their economic value, often linked to the greater rarity of the raw material from which the pigments were derived, or to the lower availability on the market. Alongside the economic value, there was also the symbolic value attributed to materials and pigments from a symbolism often rooted in references found in the Holy Scriptures, in exegetical, theological, encyclopedic, or other texts. The case studies presented in this paper, based on works created with different media whose pigments underwent specific archaeometric analyses, show that throughout the Middle Ages, sometimes precise hierarchies were employed in the choice of pigments, and the most precious ones were reserved for the most important figures or the most significant details.

New findings on the original surface finish of a wooden sculpture by Tilman Riemenschneider

2024-09-11T11:14:52+01:00

The Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg (GNM) owns a total of eight sculptures from the workshop of Tilman Riemenschneider. The depiction of Saint Elizabeth of Thuringia, created around 1510, is considered his own work and most probably comes from the central shrine of an altarpiece. The preserved layers of paint can be attributed to two different phases of polychromy. The technological and stylistic characteristics of the oldest polychromy point to its creation in the 17th century. Underneath, there are remnants of a reddish coating on the smoothed wood. Material analyses (SEM/EDX, FT-IR, Raman-spectroscopy, HPLC-PDA-HRMS, LC-MS/MS) identified a thin, sparsely pigmented protein coating directly on the wooden surface without any dirt or dust in between. This glaze seems to be the original finish that protected, refined and slightly coloured the raw limewood. The findings provide a contribution to the understanding of the type of monochrome sculptures, in particular from the workshop of Tilman Riemenschneider.

Pigments from Pasargadae and Persepolis in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (NY): recent scientific investigations on four paper squeezes

2024-08-05T11:50:59+01:00

Paper squeezes from architectural features and fragments from Pasargadae and Persepolis in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) in New York City were examined using microscopic investigation, imaging techniques, and chemical and molecular analyses. The study focused on pigments from (1) an anthropomorphic ear from a relief fragment in Palace P, (2) a fragment of a rosette from the crown of a Lamassu from Gate R (“Gate House”), both in Pasargadae; (3) a stone axe from a delegation depicted on the north façade of the Apadana, and (4) a stone block with a Hebrew inscription from one of the standing door or window jambs of the Tachara at Persepolis. Analyses confirmed red pigments identified in previous studies and revealed new evidence of lazurite as a blue pigment and magnetite as black. The findings can help us construct further aspects of specific ancient polychromatic contexts at Pasargadae and Persepolis.

A hidden splendor: the color of medieval cloisters in the 12th and 13th century Catalonia

2024-09-29T09:53:57+01:00

The identification of polychromy in medieval imagery during restoration campaigns has significantly advanced the iconographic and formal interpretation of monumental sculpture. This integration of image and color provides a fresh perspective, offering deeper insights into how the Church explicitly conveyed its dogma. Consequently, the polychrome image emerges as a pivotal medium of expression for 12th and 13th century society. The limited availability of case studies on monumental sculptural color presents a major challenge in contemporary medieval art research. Within this context, Catalonia stands out as a remarkable example on the Iberian Peninsula, owing to the chromatic remnants preserved in various sculptural and architectural ecclesiastical elements. This study focuses on Catalan medieval cloisters, proposing novel approaches to understanding the role of polychromy in its environment, and the interplay between sculpture and liturgical practices. It proposes that color was not merely aesthetic but served a wide array of symbolic meanings and functional contexts.

Polychromy and the ornamental program of wooden sculpture: a method for its study

2024-12-18T12:13:57+00:00

This article delineates a proposed methodological framework for the systematic investigation and documentation of sculptural polychromy, distinguishing it from antecedent studies that predominantly concentrated on isolated and specific elements of the technique or sculpture. The methodology is meticulously developed to thoroughly address the examination of polychrome coatings, thereby facilitating an understanding of their evolution and ornamental programme. The method is structured into two phases: fieldwork and workshop analysis, and is augmented with specialized tools, data acquisition, and registration forms, wherein pedagogical elements and usability have been prioritized through the integration of suggestions serving as guidance for compilers. The outcomes derived from the study of six sculptures within the master's programme in Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Assets at the University of Seville substantiate the efficacy of the applied method and instruments.

Preliminary results of the first archaeometric study of three medieval glass assemblages from Almada, Portugal

2024-08-22T16:33:11+01:00

In the late 1990s and early 2010, archaeological excavations were conducted in three neighbouring streets of the old part of the city of Almada (Lisbon South bay), where medieval residential complexes were brought to light. Among the materials found in the Pátio Prior do Crato and Rua Latino Coelho, a group of glass fragments is dated between the 14th and 16th centuries. In addition, the glass assemblage of Rua da Judiaria counts more than 1,200 fragments covering a time span from the 12th to the 19th century, including some objects that have been identified as luxurious due to their decorations. This work integrates archaeological and archaeometric research and focuses on glass dating between the 14th and 16th centuries from these excavations in Almada. The combination of results intends to provide a first glimpse of glass usage and circulation in the southern area of Lisbon during the late medieval period.

Technical examination, material characterization, and restoration of the landscape painting by Mıgırdiç Givanian (1848-1906)

2024-10-11T14:37:48+01:00

This study presents the documentation, technical examinations, material characterization, and restoration work of an oil painting on a metal plate signed by Mıgırdiç Givanian. The painting was analyzed with visible, ultraviolet and oblique light, optical microscopy, X-ray, Raman and micro-X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry. Optical microscopy provided insights into the painting technique and deteriorations. It was determined that the artist used an iron-based metal plate and pigments including lead white, calcite, vermilion, Prussian blue, hematite, carbon black, and gypsum, which were identified through Raman analysis. The XRF analysis suggested the possibility of a copper-based green pigment, lead-tin yellow, and chrome yellow. During the restoration phase, the yellowed varnish layer on the surface was cleaned, and the localized retouches on the painting surface, were removed. As a finishing application, the surface was re-varnished and retouched. This study is significant as it represents the first comprehensive work conducted on a painting signed by Givanian.

Light, surfaces and materials: sculpting the imperceptible

2024-07-02T13:52:47+01:00

Polychromy of Medieval and Early Renaissance sculpture can be painted, but also obtained with inlaid and using different materials. This paper focus on polymaterial sculpture and glazed terracotta sculpture in Tuscany, and the interplay between materials and lights – natural or artificial. Sculptors, indeed, used different materials and their surfaces – matte, glossy or shiny – in order to reinforce and convey the political or theological message to the beholder. They also adapted the device for the domestic setting, the interior of the ecclesiastical buildings or the façades of churches and civic buildings. Luca della Robbia’s implementation of glazed terracotta technique, in the 1430s, considerably changed the relationship between sculpture, material, and light.

The incarnation of carnation: a reconstruction of late Gothic flesh tones using the example of a Mary (1510) by the workshop of Ivo Strigel

2024-09-20T19:24:12+01:00

It has been suggested that the prestigious carnations adorning late Gothic sculptures were crafted by the workshops' masters themselves. In fact, they are a complex structure of skillfully constructed and aligned layers. The Bern University of the Arts (HKB) in Switzerland utilized the example of a Mary (1510, Centrepiece of the retable of Grono, Rhaetian Museum Chur) by the established workshop of Ivo Strigel (1486–1514) to elucidate the distinctive characteristics of a late gothic carnation. For the first time, the HKB not only displays various binding media and pigments found in each individual layer, but also illustrates the stratigraphy and binder systems that can vary depending on the facial area. To gain a full understanding of the analytical results, colour reconstructions were used to assess the effect of different concentrations of protein (egg yolk) dispersed in linseed oil on the properties of drying, flowability, and surface gloss of the respective colour media.

Pastiglia relief and sgraffito: a study of the polychromy on a late Medieval English alabaster altarpiece

2024-08-05T11:44:46+01:00

English late medieval alabaster altarpieces and fragments of such, are preserved in many countries in Europe. Scientific examination of the polychromy on alabaster carvings has provided new information about materials and painting techniques employed. The elaborately polychromed wooden frameworks of this type of altarpieces remain unstudied so far. Only a few original frameworks are preserved intact, amongst these one belonging to the Passion altarpiece from the convent of Reynistaður, now kept at the National Museum of Iceland. The article presents the results of the examination and analysis executed on selected features of the polychromy on this altarpiece. A sgraffito décor mimicking chain mail on the alabasters is shed light on, as well as sgraffito and pastiglia décor on the framework. Light microscopy, XRF and analysis of cross sections with SEM-EDS, Micro Raman and ATR-FTIR provide insight into the production of this group of works and the employed pigments and binders.

The interventions on the medieval polychromy of the tomb monument of Isabel of Aragon: the historical sources

2024-09-02T12:13:28+01:00

Over the centuries, the stone monument of Isabel of Aragon Queen Consort of Portugal (c. 1270-1336), a masterpiece of Portuguese Gothic sculpture from the first half of the 14th century, has been the subject of different types of interventions. They were intended to preserve the integrity and decorum of the sarcophagus which had held the “holy body”, found intact inside the sepulchre, of the queen proclaimed blessed in 1516 and saint in 1625. Through the study of the historical sources (literary and iconographic), it was possible to propose a reconstruction of the sequence and the chronology of various actions, which focused mainly on the pictorial surface rather than on the structure of the tomb; to identify the areas of intervention; to reflect on their motivations, modalities and techniques; and to advance hypotheses about a new reading of the iconography of the queen’s effigy and the permanence of the medieval polychromy.

The (after)lives of the pseudo-sumptuous surfaces: the case of the Venetian Gothic and Renaissance wooden sculpture in the Adriatic

2024-06-15T13:29:46+01:00

This paper discusses the alterations to the surface of the 15th- and early-16th-century wooden sculpture, mostly executed by Venetian workshops for the clientele of the minor centres of the Adriatic region. It examines the cases of wooden statues that imitated metalwork via their glittering surfaces by considering both the place of such works in their time and their “afterlives”, given that their original appearance was regularly altered in the following centuries. The sparkling effect of the pseudo-sumptuous surfaces was replaced by polychromy covering the draperies in mimetic colours. The instances of the reverse approach are also considered, given that in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, several late medieval artworks were repainted to mimic bronze or marble. These converging approaches to the surface of wooden sculpture tackle the issue of taste and the meaning of surface in the reception of sacred art in an extensive time frame.

Different stones: the weight of colour in ancient near Eastern glyptic

2024-06-03T12:16:18+01:00

The cylinder seals of ancient Western Asia are a category of artefacts with a wide range of characteristics and implications. Their use was both administrative and bureaucratic, but they were ornamental and apotropaic objects too, thus acquiring diverse symbolic and cultural values. Moreover, they were mostly experienced by their owners and users by being kept in close contact with their bodies. This means that the physical characteristics of the seals (colour, conductivity, weight, etc.) probably had some importance for the ancient societies using them. Thanks to widespread and precise digital technologies, the recording of the data of seals has grown significantly in recent years. In this preliminary work, primary and secondary visual data and the metadata thus obtained have been collected, and statistical analyses have been carried out with the objective of testing the possibility of mapping the general colour trends of ancient Near Eastern glyptics.

Crafting culture in the Adriatic: a case of woodcarvers and painters in Quattrocento Dubrovnik

2024-06-04T17:11:38+01:00

The well-preserved archival documentation in Dubrovnik provides valuable insights into various subjects, including production of art. This study delves into the collaboration between woodcarvers and painters in late medieval Dubrovnik, focusing on the mid-15th century, when artistic production was greatly influenced by the exceptional stability of the commune. Contribution challenges conventional assumptions regarding artist specialization during this era. Contracts from this period often delineated the responsibilities of painters in supervising carpentry work during artwork fabrication, while some documents suggest woodcarvers executed basic painting tasks. Discoveries are consistent with the knowledge of Italian art production, affirmed through meticulous examination of exceptionally well-preserved archival sources.

Colour in Iberian Iron Age architectural sculpture: the case of Cerro de la Merced

2024-11-27T10:21:51+00:00

Recently, analytical research has confirmed the use of pigments in Iberian Iron Age freestanding sculpture. However, hard evidence of polychromy on the many preserved remains of architectural sculpture is still scarce. We focus on the case of a large block decorated with reliefs, probably dated to the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 4th century BCE, recently found at Cerro de la Merced (Cabra, Córdoba). Employing optical and electron microscopy analyses, FTIR spectroscopy, and GC-MS, it has been possible to confirm the existence of traces of red and white colour covering the entire surface, analyse the composition of the pigments employed, and to reconstruct the colour patterns of the different elements of the relief. Our aim is to deepen our understanding of the use of colour in Iberian architecture and to shed light on the colours employed, the techniques used to apply them and their arrangement patterns.

A study of the polychromy of Campana's panels

2024-09-02T12:52:52+01:00

The study focuses on the colour of architectural earthenwares known as Campana slabs, which often show polychromy remains. We have analysed several fragments of simas, crowning and revetment panels found between 2001 and 2013 on the northeast slopes of the Palatine Hill (Sapienza Università di Roma), in the excavation pit of the Arch of Constantine and in the House of Augustus. In this work, we have reported the results obtained on 21 samples by means of Optical Microscopy (OM), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and Raman Spectroscopy. The analytical approach used has enabled to understand the palette and techniques used by ancient artists.

Beyond art technical sources: understanding colour production in Andalusi texts

2024-06-11T17:49:09+01:00

The study of colour production in al-Andalus has been mostly directed towards art technical documentary sources, such as al-Qalalūsī’s Tuḥaf al-Ḫawāṣ (The Treasures of the Select), the 13th century Andalusi instructional book. The focus of the said research falls on the ingredients and procedures to create colour. However, the technical-centred approach tends to overlook social, economic, and cultural aspects of colour-making, such as the social perception towards dyers, prices, colour etiquette, besides the context under which such manuals were written. Other types of texts – such as geographical, normative, technical, and epistolary – can help to fulfil such gaps, by providing information regarding the production, commerce, transportation, symbolism, and further uses of raw materials used in colour production, such as alum, cinnabar, and indigo. A multifaceted approach which combines the analysis of different types of coeval sources, primarily Andalusi, can contribute for a more comprehensive insight on colour production in al-Andalus.

(In)tangible archaeology of colours: permanent marks on anthropomorphic haniwa and tattooing in Kofun-period Japan

2024-07-02T18:03:35+01:00

The aim of this paper is to understand the meaning and function of reddish pigments present on the surface of anthropomorphic haniwa of the Kofun period. In Japan, the practice of tattooing (irezumi), whose symbolic meaning has changed over time, can be traced back to the Jōmon period. Tattooing is generally considered an intangible cultural heritage (ICH): the transience of human bodies significantly contributes to the archaeological impermanence of this practice except in the case of artificial intervention or natural accidental preservation. The presence of reddish decorative motives on both the face and the body of haniwa raises many questions triggering diverse interpretative scenarios. Haniwa are terracotta figures, placed outside the mounded tombs as an integral part of the funerary rituals and religious practices of protohistoric Japan, and in this sense, they are considered valuable objects not only for reconstructing the burial rituals, but also for Kofun society.